by Hugh M. Lewis

I have encountered the specific application of general systems principles in the theoretical development of different fields of study, in a specific rather than in a non-specific manner. I am not referring to the use of non-specific descriptions or reference to general systems terminology used to describe specific phenomena, such as "complexity" or "chaos" or dynamic.

I will briefly outline the specific use and deliberate engagement of systems based principles in four areas of knowledge that I am most familiar, and in which fields the use of systems concepts might not otherwise be expected. These areas include: 1, cultural anthropology, 2. archaeology, 3. developmental & cognitive psychology and 4. biological ecology. The last set of applications of systems principle is probably the best and most widely known, but it would pay to consider all the areas.

1. In cultural anthropology, systems based principles were first framed in a coherent fashion by Gregory Bateson, and later reinforced by Frederick Barthe. Bateson explicated the notion of ethno-schizmogenesis and introduced the concepts of feedback mechanisms to describe the processes involved. He later adopted a general systems principles in his famous work "Steps to an Ecology of Mind."  Frederick Barthe also independently applied the same principles of feedback to his insightful ethnographic work.

2. In archaeology, Louis Binford launched a revolution in archaeological theory and methodology, breaking with the static straight-jacket of the Culture History approach that relied primarily on taxonomy, stratigraphy and seriation techniques in the classification of artifacts and sites by the cultural groupings that occupied these sites and produced the artifacts. by adopting direct systems principle in the interpretation of sites and evidence in situ of sites they are found in. His reasoned argument was that the pattern presented by a site in context represented a structural pattern that was an accurate visage of the civilization that produced that site, and that sites done in context to other sites, achieved significance thereby in the larger framework of knowledge.

3. Heinz Werner in Developmental Psychology adopted an organic approach to the cross-cultural comparison of child cognitive development, an approach which specifically sought to interpret the behavior of the child in the context of the overall system of the child's life-world, defining what he called the "differentiation" process of the child in the elaboration of the child's life-world. He went on to apply this framework to the understanding of human symbolism and human symbolic behavior.

4. Systems based applications in Biology is almost consonant with the name Ecology in the first place, whether this is in terms of the ground-breaking study of eco-systems and energy pyramids and the transfer of energy between trophic levels, (Forbes, 1887; Transeau, 1926; Juday, 1940, etc.) These in general adopt a holistic approach to ecosystems as integrated superorganic constituencies, but also involve a very careful analysis of variables that are input and output from such systems. This kind of study has strongly influenced our understanding of systems in general. In fact, Ludwig Von Bertallanfy, the founder of general systems theory, was originally interested in the systems biology of cellular metabolism and reproduction, and this stimulated his quest for general systems principles.

General Systems Essays, Vol. I