Chapter Three

The Systematic Structure of Space-Time

And the Relativistic Dynamics of the Unified Field

Obler's Paradox and the Dilemma of Infinity

The big bang theory has been posed as a solution to Obler's paradox, but it appears to me no more of a solution to the question of the darkness of space than the alternative proposals. That the darkness of space is a reflection of a time before the existence of the universe, of empty space, begs the question in a technical sense. If we can argue that the universe constitutes a universal energy sink for electromagnetic radiation, and if we pose that this energy sink is infinitely large, then an infinite amount of light and the matter of starlight cannot fill up infinite spaces. The correction solution to Obler's paradox seems to me to be the answer that it is evidence of the infinite extent of the universe, and the infinite distances that are involved in the distribution of stars across endless spaces. So far apart are distant sources of light, that they become visible only with the most powerful of telescopes. Furthermore, it suggests as well that light may in its infinite arcs through space-time, may eventually grow old and erode as light, shifting further and further to the red. There would be infinite expanses at great distance that, we could say, the light hasn't reached us as yet, and will not reach us for a very long time to come. Another way of looking at this problem is to suggest that the visible universe upon which all our astronomical and astrophysical observations are based, is only a very small fraction of the total inferable universe, and most of the total inferable universe remains essentially beyond the sphere of observation that is as yet available to us via our light-based instruments and their distant sources of information. The darkness of the night-time sky that fills between the stars with a kind of cosmological loneliness then can be taken as indirect evidence of the larger inferential universe. Whether or not light is eventually, mysteriously returned to the fold of space-time, it is evident that an endless and bottomless energy sink would never be filled fully with light. If we had super-powerful, telescopic eyes, then the night sky might appear not as empty as it seems to the naked eye, but indeed full of very distant starlight from a myriad different sources.

Our view of a total inferable universe is further complicated by the likelihood of change and the great distances involved that entail that we cannot have a comply synchronous, simultaneous snapshot of the total universe, or even of possibly a very small fraction of a much larger whole.

The conventional view of space has been as an empty vessel that contains energy and matter, but which implies a fundamental dichotomy between the vessel and the things that are contained within the vessel. We can refer to a sense of absolute distances when speaking about outer space in a classical Newtonian sense. We know fairly precisely the distance between our sun and Pluto at its furthest point from the sun. It takes light all of seven days to travel this distance at its constant speed. The concern in understanding the structure of space is principally to comprehend the intantaneous structure of the relationships that maintain the trajectory, for instance, of Pluto in the gravitational field of the Sun. This instantaneous structure is seen as being relatively independent of the light field. It does not appear to require seven days for its articulation to be felt by Pluto, though this is difficult to say because Pluto has been continuously embedded in this field. It is clear that, in terms of light, distances between astronomical bodies are non-instantaneous but measurable and instantaneously discrete. In other words, we can say with some sense of certainty that a given body is so far away from another, as the crow flies. To claim that the sun's gravitational force acts immediately and directly upon the motion of Pluto is to disguise the possibility that both bodies may be acting together within the same spatio-temporal framework.,

Space-time has been a term we have applied to replace our conventional understanding of outerspace. It implies a relativistic geometry in which space gains dynamic properties beyond that of being an empty vessel or vacuum.

  The theory of the dynamic state universe depends upon a substantive and composite model of space-time. Evidence for the effects of space-time are from this framework held to be the universal inertial resistance of all mass to changes in direction and/or velocity, or what can be called the instantaneous alteration of the coordinate reference system that affects the dynamic motion of a system of mass. Backing up, we would state that all systems of mass are in motion, and motion is an intrinsic property of any mass system. It is critical in this regard to understand the isomorphism of fundamental structure between mass and apparent non-mass, or alternatively, and more clearly exemplified, between objects of matter and non-matter. All matter possesses five properties that are considered universal. In this case, a mass-based system will be considered primarily an object of matter having the properties of mass.

We may attribute five properties to mass systems:

1. All mass has inertia--every material body resists any attempt to change its motion.

2. All mass exhibits gravitational effects--every material body attracts every other material body.

3. All mass is additive.

4. All mass is conserved--it is neither created or destroyed (at least in the conventional  Newtonian sense) such that a loss of mass by one system is always accompanied by an equal gain of mass (or the equivalence of energy) of some other system.

In a strict sense, mass defect and the inertia of energy and the equivalence of energy to matter, alter this paradigm slightly such that we may say that two objects of matter that are brought within gravitational unity will exhibit less total mass than when these two objects are far apart. Similarly, mass defect of a unified nucleus has less total mass than the individual components. The equivalence and inertia of energy relates in the paradigm of the dynamic state universe to what can be called the fundamental relationship between energy and mass systems. To this conventional paradigm of the definition of mass that is largely Newtonian, we may add the following principle of universal relativity of mass based systems:

5. All mass systems exhibit the momentum of relative motion which is either the linear momentum that is the product of the mass and the instantaneous velocity of a body, and/or the angular momentum which is the product of its moment of inertia and its angular velocity (of spin). In a geometro-dynamic universe of space-time, both forms of momentum are present in all mass systems simultaneously. Momentum of motion may be said furthermore to consist of the instantaneous non-linear property of a mass-system in its spatial-temporal translation, and this is related to its inertia.

We may extend this thesis one step further, hypothetically speaking, with the conjecture that mass, being always conserved, neither created or destroyed, remains always in gravitational equilibrium, and can exist in one of two states, positive and negative mass, and mass is continually transforming from one form to another. Thus we may say that the total mass of the universe is infinitely large and largely conserved. Whatever shape or forms it may take, the total amount must remain always the same. We may understand the relationship of negative to positive mass in the manner of the field relationships of space-time to the objects and events that it contains and that it universally constrains.

 The positive form of mass may be said  to be a point concentration of the energy of space-time, or convergent gravitational effects. The negative form of mass may be thought of  as the ever present shadow of the positive system, consisting of the latent energy that is contained with the field structure of space-time that surrounds, envelopes and embedded all entities and events within itself. Negative mass may be thought of as the self-mass, or preferably, self-gravitation of empty space-time itself, and it represents an infinite well or reserve of latent energy that exists in a very stable form. Positive mass then becomes the expression of the gravitational effects of the mass system in terms of energy events and objects of matter. The energy derivable from space-time appears to be immediately available and of potentially unlimited quantities. Even if a fire-cracker explodes, it is possible that for a brief explosive instant there is realization of this latent energy in positive thermodynamic form. What  may well be effected is the instantaneous transfer of mass from one structural molecular state to another state, with the attendant release of a certain measure of potential energy. Such heat energy is always, potentially, energy that is ultimately derivable from the fabric of space-time itself that contains and constrains the molecules in the reaction.

I will attempt to list some of the inferable properties of space-time:

1. It is infinitesimally reducible--in other words it appears to be infinitely divisible into smaller and smaller sizes and units.

2. It is infinitely large. We can specify no external boundaries or limits to the size or the shape of the total framework of the universe.

3. It's stratification by size-scale affects the properties of event structures in terms of space-time relationships in basic relativistic ways.

4. It appears to exhibit properties of gravitational dynamic flow, which flow appears to be constrained and structured in predictable ways that are geometrically describable.

5. The flow of space-time appears to occur in multiple directions simultaneously, consitent with internal-external size stratification of event structures.

6. It harbors an infinite amount of potential negative gravitational energy.

7. It is nearly perfectly transparent to the effects of other forms of energy.

8. Its flow and structure constrains all event structures in the form of mass properties and energy transfers.

9. It may be fundamentally physically paradoxical in the sense that it may be both self-consistent and self-constitutive as a field structure, totally unified, at the same time that it is also a composite, infinitely reducible structure that is naturally stratified upon an infinite number of levels of integration and differentiation.

10. It exhibits properties of universal gravitational dynamics that incorporate thermodynamics as a subsystem, and that from a gravitational standpoint appear to violate the basic principles of thermodynamics. It exhibits  what can be called universal equivalence and complementarity of structure to matter and energy, that both matter and energy can be described sufficiently and systematically as alternative differentiated systems that are equivalent to the system of space-time, which remains as a field system wholly undifferentiated except in local relative and isotrope frameworks.

11. Within the framework of space-time, all event structures appear to occur instantaneously in a single, finite  direction, in a single, finite moment of time. If there occurs  variability of this event structure, then this relative variability will be a function of the stratification of the structure of space-time.

I believe this perspective provides us with a fundamentally new way of looking at event structures in the physical universe, and the capacity for the regular and automatic transformation of the latent energy of space-time into positive physical effects. Perhaps it adds a fundamentally  new and complex level of accounting and accountability to our physical equations and models of how event structures occur.

It is important in this model to see space-time as possessing a set of properties that are unlike those of any other physical system. Foremost it seems to be the near perfect physical transparency to the effects of light, and, as a consequence, the direct unavailability of any light-based observation of these properties that are to be associated intrinsically with space-time. This aspect has impeded  and stood in the way of our understanding and exploration of space-time as a physical structure with its own unique system of properties, and instead to construe it as a relativistic containment structure that is nearly empty and void.

Our understanding of the properties of mass and of mass as a system of relationships depends upon how we construe the systematic structure of space-time in which mass is always bound. The argument of the dynamic state universe is that mass is a complex function of the effects of space-time upon energy systems in general. It yields a composite, substantive model of space-time not as an empty vacuum, but as a universal physical presence which constrains event structures in physical reality in certain discrete ways.

Another way of stating this is to claim that space-time has mass, or constitutes a different kind of mass system. It can be referred to as negative mass. Just as an object placed in water causes a certain amount of water to be displaced, gravitational displacement can be similarly thought of as the mass displacement of space-time by an object of matter. The size of the object is not the primary factor of this mass or gravitational displacement so much as it is the density of the relative degree of space-time that is encompassed by the object.

We may therefore identify several different kinds of mass system that are found operating in the structure of physical reality, all of which appear to be relatively independent of one another. The mass system associated with objects of matter appears to be different from the kind of mass system that is associated with different forms of energy, and the mass system we attribute inferentially to space-time also appears to be different from either the kind of matter-based mass system or the mass system that is relative to energy fields and dynamics. Though these mass systems appear to be relatively independent of one another, it seems to be the case that they interact with one another in complex ways, leading to a variety of interesting consequences in terms of physical phenomena that they are associated with. It is appropriate I believe to refer to these various systems as mass based because their principle properties all share relationships with mechanical and dynamic frameworks that are relative to each system.

To say that space has mass, regardless of its emptiness, is to say that if we took a certain volume of space, it would have self-mass or gravitational effect that is independent of the influence of any energy field or object of matter that might be contained within that space. Space in this sense refers to an instantaneous 3 dimensional volume of physical space, of any size, that occurs simultaneously at the same moment, regardless of other temporal considerations.

If we picture the curvature of space-time as the preferred direction of gravitational motion of an object within its manifold, then all matter-based systems of mass would exhibit a kind of curvature in which all things flow toward a center:

This first diagram depicts the normal curvature of space-time that we associate with gravitational fields. Early models of the universe assumed that the entire universe exhibited a uniform positive curvature of the space-time field and that all of the universe was gravitationally unified with a common gravitational field that was defined by a gravitational constant. Mass associated with a positive curvature of space-time can be thought of in terms of positive mass.

The second diagram depicts a flat or none-curved space-time in which mutual gravitational fields from different sources or centers are self-canceling in net effect. This depicts zones of relative weightlessness/motionlessness. It is possible that under some circumstances the gravitational forces are so great as to be disintegrative or destructive of central regions.

This type of flat or non-directional space-time can be considered to be those intermediate regions between extended gravitational fields at which point there is mutual cancellation of effect and hence relative motionlessness (i.e. relative weightlessness). There may be further more two sub-types with this intermediate kind of structure, depending upon whether this field is created by the mutual self-cancellation of convergent fields, or the possible neutralization of divergent or negatively curved fields--a phenomenon which has not been observed but only hypothesized to occur.

A third type of negative curvature of space-time is possible to consider, and this may occur in large inter-galactic regions that are undefined by any uniform or dominant gravitational fields. If it is true that the universe as a whole lacks any overarching or non-isotropic field structure, then we can conclude that the universe as a whole is gravitationally non-unified.

In such a system, we would expect things to be in motion, accelerating away in a divergent manner from a central region. This is just the opposite of the positively skewed system. In such a system, objects of mass, or alternatively energy fields, would have a natural tendency to flow away at an increasing speed from a central area, in a divergent manner. This kind of curvature is what is attributed to an expanding universe, and positive acceleration can be expected to occur naturally in such a field without the transfer of energy we come to expect in positive based systems.

There is no reason not to suspect that space-time does not assume all three forms of curvature in varying ways and degrees in the space-time topography of the total universe, and that in general we can identify these different topographies in various areas of the universe. 

Type I (positive curvature systems) tend to be the most locally confined and areally isotrope. 

Type II systems would tend to be intermediary and interstitial to Type I and Type III systems. 

Type III systems are encompassing and "out-bound" systems that contain both Type I and Type II structures.

We may further associate clear types of mass systems, with associated sets of relative properties, to each type of spatio-temporal structure. Type I systems are associated with matter-based systems of mass and the conventional and relativistic properties we associate with such systems. All objects of matter exhibit manifold structures that are Type I with associated mechanical-gravitational principles of motion. Type II systems are associated I believe with the intrinsic properties of space-time itself, as a separate or relatively independent system of mass. Type III curvature I believe may be associated with divergent energy fields and the relative mass-field systems that are associated with these energy fields. It may also be associated with the typical kind of structure that occur upon the outer edges of the universe, at least as it exists in this current phase of its development.

The topography of the structure of space-time can be therefore hypothetically depicted in the following profile view with the idea that the direction of flow of space-time gravitationally will always be down hill and the rate of flow will be defined by the steepness of the curve. In this model we can define intermediate regions that are relatively flat

Given the hypothesis of a complex structure of space-time, of a relative, composite well-system structure of physical reality, it is possible to imagine all three kinds of structure occurring simultaneously, upon multiple levels, within the same coordinate-reference system of space-time, albeit upon different levels of physical stratification of reality.

The mass system of space-time may be thought of as a kind of gravitational well-system in which dimensions are associated with size scale, or relative proportions of physical size encompassed by such a system. It is the space-time manifold enveloping an object of mass that determines its mass characteristics or properties, and we cannot have or imagine such an object that is not so enveloped by a space-time manifold. The mass effects of space-time upon all objects of matter are universal, and are a function of the relative size or scale upon which these effects may be measured or effected. Gravitational phenomena are a consequence of these effects, as are other intrinsic mass phenomena like inertia and momentum.

All space-time exhibits some sense of directionality and flow--the rate of this flow determines the mass or inertial resistance necessary to overcome its effects, and constitutes a measure of negative mass. It is possible to consider therefore that, if divergent forms of light radiation have a mass effect upon the structure of space-time, this effect would be Type III and would be experienced in the outermost regions of the universe where no other mass-based gravitational effects would be of great consequence--under these  conditions, it is possible to imagine that space-time might flow gravitationally in the direction  of light, which is essentially always escaping from any  closed or delimited system. If the universe is expanding, it may well be this effect of the divergent flow of space-time as a consequence of the universal background field of light that operates as an integrated mass system upon the structure of space-time. This flow would be, I suspect, cumulative, if it existed at all.

Of course, all of this is only possible, but hardly imaginable, if we assume that the universe is essentially open and infinite in extent. This is not a hard assumption to make, but one that is virtually impossible to prove in any empirically satisfactory manner. Only within an infinite universe may we have infinite expansion of space-time in all directions simultaneously without achieving some limit to this expansion. I suspect that as the universe continues to expand due to its  non-isotrope structure, it continues also to fill in its own intermediate spaces with increasing amounts of matter and energy that is a by-product, possibly, of this expansion. New light energy may be produced not only through the compression of space-time, but also through the expansion of space-time, possibly producing a kind of spontaneous radiation once its rate of expansion achieves light-speed. Once achieving this velocity, the observability of this phenomena would disappear from a lateral view, and the radiation produced would propagate in specific directions along a wave-front away from the principal direction of expansion.

This allows us to think of space-time dynamics as a kind of self-pressurizing system that is gravitationally controlled. We can increase volume, which is equivalent to decreasing pressure, or rather the relative density of such a system, with different gravitational outcomes. Depressurizing a system alters the gravitational dynamics of the system, and alters therefore also the gravitational equilibrium that the system operates within.

This model depends upon several sets of explanations. 

1. First is the framework of gravitational dynamics which asserts that gravitational events comprise a complex set of phenomena which are not all directly attributable to gravitational radiation, which may or may not exist in reality. Second is the explanation for the formation and origin of matter in a fundamental sense, which in turn depends upon a parton or composite model of the proton structure as a non-fundamental but extremely stable configuration the essential qualities of which are the properties of mass. Third, as stated initially, is an understanding of the structure of space-time as a substantive physical presence that is continuously interacting with mass systems and objects of matter.

2. The big bang model contends that all protonic matter in the universe was created in the initial stages of the spontaneous formation of the cosmic egg. The exact mechanism by which protons were then created remains unexplained. Lacking clear explanation is a critical shortcoming of this theory, as any mechanistic process or model of physical reality requires such explanation of formation. To this day, how protons were or may continue to be created in the universe remains a mystery? According to the theory of the dynamic state universe, the isomorphism of fundamental structure of space-time, matter and energy, or a principle of universal equivalence, entails that upon a very basic level space-time has a substantive set of properties that are interchangeable with matter and alternatively with various forms of energy, and these processes of dynamic interchange are continuously occurring.

The theory of the dynamic state universe posits at least two alternative pathways for their production: first is what is called the pristine or matter-free pathway of formation, and the second is the secondary or mass-dependent pathway of formation. Pair formation processes of high energy light, usually in proximity to protons, lead to the spontaneous formation of electrons and positrons, and possibly into a cascade effect thatcan produce prodigious amounts of these entities. Pristine particle pair formation would permit the production of such pairs in free field systems that have been charge or possibly mass polarized. It is evident that electron-positron pair formation follows a typical pathway that is independent of the pathway for proton-neutron formation, though it appears that both electrons and positrons may be critically involved in nucleonic formation. Therefore, we may conclude that electrons, though complementary to protons in the formation of matter, are not necessarily produced in the same quantities or distributions as is nucleonic matter.

Secondary matter formation may be more directly approached from the model of the dynamic state universe. From this theory, new mass in the form of protonic or nucleonic particles would be continuously and prodigiously produced within solar furnaces we call star systems that regularly blow off this excess mass into the surrounding space time framework, to eventually form very large configurations of hydrogen-helium gas. The pathway of this process of production rests upon the theory of space-time replacement and displacement--large mass-bodies consume space-time at continuous rates relative to their mass, shape and density, as well as to their system of momentum, and convert the negative or hidden energy contained in space-time into new mass. The gravitational equilibrium that these star systems maintain inhibits the augmentation and increase of the base mass of the system itself, so that most new mass is simply redistributed back out to space.

This secondary formation process in turn depends upon a parton model of the proton. The proton is regarded as the most stable particle entity known, and the fundamental constituent of all matter, yet it is construed in this case as a non-fundamental or composite entity. The constituents of this entity are regarded as captured leptons--alternatively neutrinos, positrons, k-mesons, pions--in combination with what can be called "quarkons" that are constituted of "spime" or the fundamental strange stuff of space-time, and that may interact with one another and within spime fields in the form of gravitons. The mass of the proton as an individual entity, which constitutes the nucleus of a single hydrogen atom, is surprisingly stable and uniform in the universe, and it is my contention that this mass is self-consistent and non-additive in that it demonstrates a fundamental exchange relationship with the space-time manifold around it. According to the theory of spime-gravitational replacement, the quarkons of the proton blend with the leptons with which these interact, and these quarkons are regularly replaced by new "space stuff" at a rate much greater than the rate of gravitational replacement that occurs in the surrounding space-time manifold itself.

The primary or pristine pathway of proton formation is much more difficult to explain or account for, as it is a pathway that does not depend upon the previous formation of matter or mass systems to intermediate its process. Supposedly, though the secondary pathway appears common place, ubiquitous and possibly predominant in the contemporary universe, this pathway could not have existed in the primeval universe that lacked any matter to begin with. The formation of the first matter in the universe, that then contributed to the formation of more matter, must therefore be accounted for in a mass-independent model. If it is true that gravitation is the primary source of the energy driving the process of protonic matter formation, then it is possibly the case that instances of gravitational disquilibrium of space-time may result in the spontaneous formation of protonic  matter just as in the case of free light producing new electron-positron pairs. If this is the case, then it is expected that protons and anti-protons must be produced in equal quantities in such mass-producing formations of gravitation, but the anti-protons are regarded as unstable and therefore rapidly degenerative in a "positive state universe."

I maintain that protons can be created in the context of large gravitational pressures with intensive electromagnetic fields of radiation. It is possible to spontaneously produced electromagnetic fields of radiation from otherwise empty space time as a function of the increasing and possibly convergent turbulence of space-time. In such conditions, that I refer to as a gravitational vortex, we would expect the formation of a quasi-stable "white source" that would be productive of both spontaneous light in intensively large amounts, and also as a result the production of new electron-positron particle pairs as well as proton-anti-proton pairs.

According to this model, new hydrogen nuclei are being produced in massive quantities and widely distributed throughout the universe. Such "star wind" would blast away from solar systems and lead to the collection of interstitial regions of star dust in which regions large formations of hydrogen-helium, little proton to centralizing gravitational effects, would pile up and come into contact with each other, and increase in cloud densities to the point that precipitating events would trigger a new round of star formation. We may identify white sources in the universe, and it is possible that white sources may eventually convert themselves into fledgling star systems in their own right. In fact, any star may have had its beginning as a hypothetical white-source around which hydrogen-helium  gas collected and built up.

It is unlikely that these processes predominated for all time in the universe, and therefore if the theory of the dynamic state universe is to be ultimately successful, then it must account for an alternative pathway of proton-hydrogen formation. The first stars to form were may have been white sources, and these white sources may resemble the quasars that we view today.

The alternative pristine pathway that we can possibly use to account for the formation of pristine hydrogen would be one in which we hypothesize an average rate of protonic formation in space-time over a give volume of space-time. This process cannot be completely discounted as a possibly significant contributor to the net volume of hydrogen in the universe, but it strikes me that it may depend upon the collision of cosmic radiation or particles the origin of which are not other star systems or mass systems. In other words, cosmic radiation of sufficient quantity and strength would have to be produced over a relatively dense region of space-time to permit this as a realistic possibility.

This entire model in turn depends upon understanding the framework of gravitational dynamics that is held to violate (but not invalidate) the laws of thermodynamics in some basic respects and complement these same laws in other respects (relativizing them). Gravitation is considered to be a complex set of heterogeneous phenomena that encompasses a multivariate model of gravitation. Depending upon the framework that we construe a gravitational event, we may attribute different specific, albeit related causes to these events. For instance, a body falling from a high altitude to the earth's surface is not necessarily falling because of some Newtonian principle of mass attracting mass by means of gravitational radiation. 

Whether or not gravitational radiation may be involved in such a free-fall to earth, the main mechanism that produces this consequence must be considered the continuously flow of space-time towards the earth's center, as the consequence of spime gravitational replacement and displacement. This flow is convergent from all directions, and represents a kind of four dimensional vortex. This mechanism is alleged to be fundamentally different than the mechanism that maintains the long-distance trajectories of planets or stars about other centers of gravity. Space-time in these contexts is flowing into the vortex region, but there occur long distance effects of gravitational radiation, especially between different objects of mass, which contribute to the overall effect. We can hypothesize other alternative effects of gravitation that may occur in the universe that we may be more unfamiliar with. It is possible for instance that in some intergalactic regions of deep space-time that its structure is fundamentally different than in regions like interplanetary spaces of our own solar system. We must hypothesize  a form of intrinsic space-time turbulence and the possibility of gravitational currents and even "tidal waves" that may flow through deep-space.

Gravitation is seen as a complex phenomenon comprising mainly the invisible motions, mass relations, and inertial effects of space-time dynamics. Space-time flows, apparently in structured ways, and it is this flow through a four-dimensional continuum with a complex folding topography that results in various kinds of gravitational effects. The conventional notion of gravitation as a relatively continuous if quantized energy field may be only partially correct--gravitation may exist in several different forms, and constituted more than one overlapping energy field. Gravitational energy inherent to the structure of space-time that exhibits relativistic inertial constraints on all motion of mass systems is what I refer to as the negative gravitational energy, or potential gravitational energy of space-time itself. This negative gravitational energy is expressed with kinetic or motional effects in terms of the flow of space-time, or alternative, the flow of objects embedded in warped space-time manifolds, through space. 

Gravitational energy may also become expressed in a secondary positive form as a kind of gravitational radiation, hypothetically constituted by gravitons, that transmit out into space much like light, and that interacts between different nucleons, even at apparently very great distances. In fact, the hypothesis is that gravitation constitutes what can be called a well system of gravitational structure, in which there may be multiple overlapping gravitational fields of greater or lesser strength, each field acting independently of the other. This speaks of a fundamental dimensionally of space-time--an "inward" or intrinsic nth dimensionality, that is not fully accounted for in terms of four-dimensional space-time constructs. In this nth dimension, the variable of time may not have the same kinds of consequences that is traditionally or conventionally construed in a 4 dimensional framework.

As noted before, the paradigm of gravitational dynamics must account for some phenomena that appear non-thermodynamic in that they violate the laws of thermodynamics in a strict sense. Gravitation of mass-systems appears stable  and continuous for the lifetime of the entity. Similarly, motional trajectories of such mass systems appear to be indefinite through space-time. In other words, we can describe two classes of "perpetual motion" and infinite energy, that cannot be accounted for if we construe gravitational energy as a strictly thermodynamic process. 

The argument of perpetual motion, absolute rest and the impossibility of a non-energy vacuum except upon a discrete quantum scale, are all additional confirmations that gravitation as a mass-based system of interaction does not function according to our conventional understanding of how energy systems are supposed to work. In other words,  large mass systems like the sun function primarily as the result of their large gravitational fields, and these fields appear to produce more energy, in the form of displaced mass, heat, and gravitational radiation, than they appear to contain in terms of their own intrinsic mass alone. 

We therefore hypothesize a mass system as interacting in a fundamental sense, on a continuous basis, with the space-time field it is contained within. This interaction is to draw energy continuously from space-time, and to expend this energy  in other forms, either as replacement mass of its own system, as demanded by a model of intrinsic change and periodic process, or as displaced mass-energy from the system itself which leads to its redistribution in the larger universe. It is the intense gravitational pressures of such systems that create such effects that appear to violate basic thermodynamics, and these pressures are due directly to the convergent inward flow of  space-time into the center of gravity. Therefore we must conclude the systematic, substantive, non-empty  composition of space-time and its fundamental isomorphism and equivalence to other forms of energy and matter which is a complex composite  construct of energy. It appears that black holes are relatively permanent and stable structures because they appear to be able to convert almost all of its incoming energy and matter back into relatively pure gravitational energy, which is then lost from such a system in prodigious quantities.

Mass systems appear to be doing several things at once. They have gravitation and hence are expending some measure of energy from the space-time manifold. Simultaneously they are in motion, and hence have inertia, a measure of the size and structure of the space-time manifold that envelopes and embeds such a system, and they are also have certain discrete levels of momentum. All of these are relative to the gravitational frame of reference that they occur within.

Energy systems, like light fields, or positive gravitational fields, also constitute mass systems that are different than the concentrated systems of objects of matter.  The mass effects of energy fields, as a mass system, appear diminished and far less focused than they are for object based systems of mass. They can be considered to be distributed mass systems and interact gravitationally with space-time in a different manner. For instance, in this model, the constant speed of light in a vacuum is a measure of the gravitational inertia exhibited upon quantum sized units of such a system in the space-time framework. The mass of such a system, as in its motion, is not experienced mechanically at a single point at a single instant of time, and hence with the attributed inertial and motional constraints, but as a system that exists at multiple alternative points at the same instant of time, or in a distributed or quantized frame of reference. Inertial effects over a quantitized energy field are far different than they are for a concentrated object of matter.

Stable mass systems are objects of matter, and it appears universally consistent to say that all such objects are composed of one primary entity, the proton, along with the neutron which is less stable than the proton and consists of one proton with an attached electron. Probing the structure of the neutron would probably tell us a great deal about a proton, as they are both otherwise identical. The proton and neutron can therefore be said to interact with space-time in a manner that produces the properties of mass and gravitation, which are complementary properties. No other stable particle does this, and the phenomenon of gravitation as an energy field and system is tied to the understanding of the composite structure and processes that occur within the nucleonic particle. Understanding the structure and function of the nucleon as a mass producing system, as in essence the only mass producing system that is stable in the universe, requires in turn an understanding of how the nucleon may be constructed in the universe. The extreme stability of the proton should be a key clue as to its mass-based interactions with the space-time manifold, as are the gravitational effects that mass-based systems produce.

It is possible that though anti-protons may be produced in equal number with protons, their rates of annihilation may be different than that of protons. I suspect as well that an anti-proton may become a proton by means of being first converted into a neutron by positronic capture, and then degenerating back into a proton. Thus a substantial percentage of anti-protons that are produced must eventually find their way back into becoming protons. If a proton is a non-fundamental entity, it is possible that an anti-proton is a non-stable entity in a fundamental sense, as its charge differential may prevent it from interacting as a mass-system in the same manner as for a proton. On the other hand, there in fact may not really be such a thing as an anti-proton if they are not stable entities. If protons are the only stable but composite form, then any other construction or formation, even of an anti-proton particle, would be unstable. The critical difference between a proton and an anti-proton should be a matter of spin and charge, which may be related to one another. We must guess that the spin of a proton/anti-proton pair formation is more complex than that of a complementary electron-positron pair formation. I suspect that if we can label spin arbitrarily as either right or left-handed, or clockwise and counterclockwise, then one direction is inherently more stable in relation to space-time than the alternate direction which results in a charge differentiation of the field. If a proton is nothing more than a positron that has been captured and interacts with a set of quarkons, we must see a proton as a stable and permanent point-value deformation of the space-time manifold producing a mass differential.

I see a proton essentially as a "captured" or bound positron that may exist in a very tight orbit. This positron may possibly be replaced by a meson or even a neutrino in the configuration. This tight orbit has the consequence of partitioning, or creating a "hole" in the structure of space-time, the result of which is gravitational induction and displacement of a mass system. Exactly how a positron may become so bound or captured in such a hole formation remains unanswered, but may be related to the strong forces that occur between nucleons at very short distances.

It is my contention that the constituent elements of protons are a discrete and stable combination of quarks with an attached positron. These quarks are exchanged in nuclear binding forces in the form of mesons, which represent an alternate form of the same type of system. These nuclear mesons then that are implicated with the  nuclear strong forces are constituted as discrete quantized bundles of energy, bearing significant mass. The quarkon that I hypothesize is therefore to be considered a proton or nucleon stable set of mesons or submesons. Such a quarkon disintegrates immediately upon the disruption of the protonic nuclei, an event which may occur with negative-meson stars. A neutrino and anti-neutrino may also be involved in this process.

Before proceeding with this conjecture, it is important to observe the stability and discrete mass of the proton as an example of a near perfect energy system in nature in which the sum of the parts is greater than the individual components making up the whole. It is even possible in this case that the quantized mass of this system may be the cumulative effect of interactions of the stable system with the surrounding space-time manifold. It is evident that this protonic configuration can only exist in this form and will become unstable and degenerative in any other context. Being such a stable system, the threshold of activation for disturbing the equilibrium of this system must be very great indeed.

What is of interest to me is the explanation of the formation of meson and quarkon entities in high-energy contexts that do not involve the presence of preformed matter. Quarkons in the form of protons-neutrons are baryons that are multiplets of three. Quarkons in pair form the various states of mesons that are involved in nucleonic energy transfers. I suspect that in the plasma of the sun, mesonic entities are formed and destroyed in very high frequencies and densities, and from these a certain rate of protonic formation can be expected to occur. If we hypothesize pristine white sources, which produce large amounts of light and gravitational densities in convergent regions of space-time, then it is possible to imagine the formation off quarkonic entities along side of electron-positron pair formation that would lead to the physics of hydrogen formation and accumulation.

Because quarks have not yet been isolated in the laboratory, their discrete structure remains something of an empirical mystery, though their systematic structure in relation to other subatomic particles has been fairly well mapped out in theory.

Quarkons therefore represent entities that are formed of the stuff of space-time, and take various forms in relation to the other subatomic particles, namely baryons and mesons that all have nuclear interactions and reactions. Thus these quarkons are associated with mass systems and mass-energy interactions. It is my contention, hypothetically, that quarkons are themselves composite entities constituted by nth-particulates, which form a class of sub-elementary "event-entities" of which all known forms of energy and subatomic particle are composed. Upon disruption of nucleonic systems, these quarkons simple dissolve into their componential sub-elements. Gravitons and photons are alternate forms of these nth-particulates, and the dissolution and exchange of these sub-elementary entities may take either or both forms simultaneously. The dissolution of nucleonic quarkons into their nth-particulates would probably be a process largely invisible to the effects of light-based observation.

Quarkons and their nth-particulates or "n"-finitesimals therefore would constitute two different levels of physical stratification of reality, and would possibly comprise each entire suites or families of sub-elementary particles or event-entities. It is even difficult to describe these levels clearly as particles, for it is possible that some essential characteristics of particles, such as discrete mass, spin, magnetic moment, etc., may be non-discrete or missing from such phenomena. Mass for instance at this level may lose its additive characteristic, and may become a field-dependent or relative set of properties that is associated with a particular arrangement or set of nth-particulates.

Spime, the sub-elementary stuff of space-time, would be a species of quarkon constituted by nth-particulates in certain arrangements or patterns. What spime would therefore share with baryons, mesons, photons, gravitons and neutrinos is that all would be constituted by the same essential kinds or families of nth-particulates, albeit in various alternative arrangements with different associative sets of properties that we identify in physical reality. I suspect that in its normal distributed state, spime forms large multiplet quarkon structures that are loosely linked together. The mass of the system thus becomes completely distributed throughout the "unified" field of space-time, more or less evenly. Something must occur in high density energy fields that triggers the segmentation and partitioning or compartmentalization of this field structure into discrete units, from which an array of subatomic particles and entities may form.

The model of the dynamic state universe accords with a general relativistic geometric model of space-time, but extends this model somewhat to incorporate a diverse range of possible phenomena upon levels of physical stratification previously unimagined. We have no unequivocal empirical evidence or direct proof for this theory of the composite and infinitesimal structure of physical reality. Like seeking the ends of the universe, the kind of evidence is of necessity logically derivative and inferential of basic models and observations of phenomena in everyday reality.

The stratification of physical reality (and of the total universe) as a function of size of event structure is a basic aspect to the understanding of the systematic structure of space-time. According to this model, the relativistic structure of events at a subatomic, or even what can be called a zeroeth level, is very different from that structure of events that occur at an intergalactic or level of a super-cluster.

As the universe ages, it is become increasingly gravitationally unified through a process of stratified compartmentalization of regions of space-time.

1. As the universe ages, the amount of matter and super-matter is increasing relative to the total mass of the universe, the consequence of which is the physical aggregation and gravitational unification of larger and larger compartments of the universe.

2. As the universe ages, it is passing gradually out of a phase that can be called primordial expansion and production of pristine hydrogen from white source structures, and it is passing toward the larger and larger scale consumption of energy in black hole systems.

3. The relative proportions of pristine hydrogen to recycled, secondary sources of hydrogen is decreasing as the amount of secondary hydrogen increases.

4. The original state of the universe exhibited properties of singularity and zeroth differentiation, which obeyed the perfect cosmological principle of total random non-isotrope structure.

5. As the universe ages, it is becoming increasingly non-isotrope in local and regional compartments, isotropic structure being governed by the topography of gravitational flow within space-time.

Spime as the Structure of Space-Time and the Substance of the Gravitational Field

We expect a nucleus of an atom to be mass-dependent because it is spatially-stable, more or less. It occupies a definite point or at least region in space at a definite time. If we are to believe Heisenbergian uncertainty, we cannot attribute the same kind of properties to the complementary electron shell structures that tend to surround nuclei. It is the relative stability of the atomic nucleus that is the central object of scrutiny and questioning. It is apparent that as nuclei increase in size, this stability breaks down and they tend then to become increasingly radioactive and to decay into more stable and smaller structures. The  most stable nucleus structure appears to be that of the helium nuclei, though all the noble gas structures appear stable. The atomic weight of helium is approximately 4.003 grams per mole. It entails that a helium structure on average will always contain two protons in association with two neutrons. 

I would picture the shape of the helium  nuclei in which the two smaller protons are held together by two intermediating larger neutronic structures, and the two neutrons are held together by the polar of positive charge created between the two protons. The shape may  be more or less elongated, as at the right above, depending upon the relative strengths of repulsion between the protons. A lithium structure might be evident below in a kind of lattice structure  composed of six vertices.

If we drew lines from each center of each component that would thus compose a vertex to a geometric shape, then such  a structure would consist of two sets of equal-lateral triangles, one turned upside  down to the other and intersecting the other at its mid-line. The triangles would be of equal size if the component parts were perfectly spherical and non-elongated, though it is possible that non-spherical forms are in fact common. The orbital shape of the surrounding electron cloud would be a sp hybrid.

There would be a tendency for such a structure to accept one more neutron at the center of the formation. This would account for the relative abundance of an isotopic form of lithium with an atomic weight approximating seven instead of six as predicted by the period table. All larger size structures can be defined by the number of points of the vertices they  occupy on a surface structure in a similar manner, with increasing potential for added neutrons in the center of such structures. The prediction of this structure is that protons will never occupy central positions, and will always have at least one neutron occurring between it and any other proton in the structure.

An alternative structure is that the protons are shaped in a ring structure, that grows with number and is intermediated by larger neutrons, or alternatively, that the structure of protons are ends of sticks that radiate equidistantly from the center. The more protons, the more points radiating from the center. In this model, neutrons would assume the central intermediary regions--as the sticks, and would take a shape to conform to the overall shape of the nucleus. In this model, the center would be held together by an uneven polarization of the central neutrons, in a sense resulting in a tightly concentrated neutronic mass at the center that is heavily polarized  to the positive. The bonding energies of this internal core  structure would be considerable.

It is possible that in these structures,  there is  a continuous phase alternation of pattern between neutrons and protons, such that each entity may periodically switch its identity from that of a proton to a neutron and back again in a coordinated manner.

Whatever element we consider, we can devise  a structure based upon the rules that protons will attempt to be as far apart from one another as possible, and that there must always be an intermediating neutron structure occurring between protons. Large atomic nuclei will approach a spherical geometric form, or rather a kind of geodesic geometric form, and the internal structure of such nuclei will tend to be heavily neutronic. I predict that no  protons will be deposited in the interior of such structures. These structures may furthermore become unified or integrated through the continuous exchange of componential energies or entities between them. Neither should they be construed as rigid or solid structures. Nevertheless they appear to be relatively stable and fixed structures.

One aspect of the unification of the gravitational field is the hypothetical property of spin-synchronization that will occur within bound and unified fields. Spin synchronization can be thought of as a harmonic  synchronicity of spins within unified fields, resulting from the sharing of the energy derived principally from intrinsic spin. Each component, say the proton and individual neutron, gives up some of its  energy  in the form of spin and possibly other forms, and this energy is  imparted to the nucleus as a whole, and may even be transferred between atoms, at least indirectly, via different kinds of bond structures that become available  through these nuclear geometries.

I believe spin to be important to an understanding of this phenomena, because it is the only form of continuous intrinsic motion of elementary particles that exhibits a kind of periodicity function and rate of spin per unit time is equivalent to the relative energy of such an entity. Rotational motion, for instance, of an entire nucleus, is a product of spin of the subatomic particles that become synchronously unified.

It is alleged that through spin unification field-lines for directional energy transference are created that may exist for just an infinitesimal amount of time. Objects of similar spins are able to transfer energy between one another more readily than components with very different spin properties.

The basic model presented herein predicts that the atom will perform the basic function of gravitational induction similar to what happens with planets of much grander scale. This function of gravitational induction drives the energy dynamics of the atom and is based upon a model of continuous spime replacement within the structure of the atom itself. As a result of this continuous rate of input, which appears to be fairly discrete per unit proton and neutron, atoms and their components  will exhibit steady-state and dynamic motions like vibrations, spin, rotations, jumping and will release possibly several different forms of energy, including gravitational radiation and electromagnetic energy. To understand how such a system works, we must understand that the current mass and matter contained within such a system is not necessarily permanent, but is transient and continuously replaced by new mass and matter forming components. 

Old mass and units are either shed back into the surrounding space-time matrix, or  simple "blink" out of existence. It is the atomic system as a whole that is stable and quite predictable from the standpoint of the periodic table and the other properties associated with the elements and their compounds. We can say that in such structures, subatomic particles are the minimum visible or observable units--the spime substructure remains as yet incognito and invisible except for its indirect effects upon the energy  dynamics and mass of the system. 

Atoms in large connections increase their mass proportionately to the total density of the system. Such atoms share a proportion of the weight of the whole, or of all the other atoms of the system, as they each contribute to the condensation of the space time manifold in which they occur. Denser space-time manifolds lead to greater gravitational effects, increased relative mass and higher rates of spime-replacement per atom. Space-time flows more rapidly into such a system, with the resulting relativistic consequences. In such a context of a dense formation of a large number of atoms, each atom shares in the induced  gravitational environment created by the composite system as a whole, which entails higher rates of spime induction and replacement.

It is evident from this model that rates of spime induction and replacement in a proton/neutron are dependent upon both the intrinsic mass of the entity and upon the relative mass of the entity in any given larger system of gravitation, or, in other words, upon the relative densities of the surrounding space-time manifold in which that system exists.

There is really no other way to explain gravitational energy as an attractive agency in the universe. Forces of attraction are not like the classic science fiction "tractor beam" that pulls a distant object into itself. Attraction must occur as a result of mutual and reciprocal interaction between objects being attracted. In the case of electrostatic bonding, attractive forces is based upon the degree of polarization of electrostatic charges. In this classic sense, we know that electromagnetic opposites  attract, or are pulled toward one another. In the case of gravitational attraction, we see a similar kind of phenomena in operation,  but there is no polarization of charge or any other form of complementarity of structure. The complementarity of structure that occurs is simply between the mass object that contains positive energies and its surrounding space-time manifold which is alleged to contain gravitationally negative (or potential) energies.  The large scale and long distance forces of gravitational attraction that can be observed in the universe are nothing but the cumulative  consequence of this minute  force occurring on the subatomic level, and extending outwardly in ever widening spheres. 

The long run and larger state-path trajectories of gravitational attraction in the universe speak only of the near perfect fluidity and geometricity of pattern of the spime structure of empty space in the universe. It is the property of this structure of the gravitational field to maintain its manifold shape and differential about an object in motion regardless of its speed, once this object has been set in motion. In essence, in an equilibrium state, the manifold offers no frictional resistance to the continuous motion of an object in space. If anything,  the continuous induction of spime into the mass of the object is the  source of intrinsic motion and energy imparted to the object, as for instance the thermal heating processes occurring at the center of the earth as it spins its way around the sun. There is no degradation of orbit. In empty space, light travels a nearly perfect trajectory, though there is evidence of very long-term red-shifting that is evidence of a loss of energy to its surrounding manifold.

Gravitational resistance is only experienced when there is some additional input of  positive energy or there is some outside perturbing force (for instance another gravitating body) that results in either an accleration, deceleration or change of direction of an object--in this sense the gravitational manifold that embeds the object becomes altered and enters into a period of gravitational disequilibrium until a new equilibrium can be reestablished. The object begins moving in a manner that is against the grain of its surrounding gravitational manifold. The outside addition of energy will result in disequilibriation of the manifold, by altering the relative densities of the spime manifold and the relative rates of induction of spime into the object from different directions.

Thus, it  follows as well that the setting of the clock, either at an atomic scale or for the object of mass as a composite whole, is a process that relates directly to the relative rate of spime induction, and once this rate becomes altered, then the clock must become reset to a new rate, which occurs immediately once the perturbing force has stopped.

What might be the hypothetical properties attributed to spime?

1. It appears to be nearly perfectly transparent to all matter and energy. Energy and matter can travel through it without resistance, and it can pass through matter with no resistance as well.

2. It flows in continuous directions. It is therefore dynamic. It can follow eddy currents and have tidal effects that can result in unusual tropic distortions and condensations of space-time, independently of any external objects of mass acting upon the system.

3. It exists independently of the isotropic gravitational effects that matter and energy may have upon its patterns. It is invisible to positive forms of energy and matter, therefore it cannot be directly observed by conventional means, but only indirectly demonstrated in terms of its large scale effects.

4. It interacts with positive matter and energy on the most basic levels in a continuous manner. It is a source and sink of infinite  potential energy from which all positive forms of matter and energy  are originally derived.

5. It cannot be permanently disrupted, only temporarily altered. There can be no perfect vacuum or void in empty space where no spime occurs.

6. It expresses its energies in a reciprocal though uneven manner.

7. Its concentration and condensation in high pressure systems results in the conversion of spime to heat energy and, at high enough pressures and temperatures, into the formation of new hydrogen nuclei.

8. New spime may be created spontaneously from "nothing" by means of the stretching and continuous pulling apart of the space-time manifold itself.

9. It is therefore possible that our complementary state universe exists within a larger meta-universe system of alternative dimensionalities and interconnections that we do not yet understand.

10. Spime itself is probably a composite entity composed  of a well series of infinitesimal entities that exist  in alternative dimensions and that span multiple universal systems.

We can say that spime or the gravitational field has complementary  properties that are associated with both the properties of light propagation and with properties of fluid-dynamics. Thus, it appears that gravitational attractive forces may propagate in a reciprocal manner in almost perfectly straight vectors; at the same time, it appears  that within the same framework spime is flowing much as a fluid flows in a spinning container. Though we mean essentially the same thing, when we refer to spime we are referring to essential substance composing otherwise "empty" space-time, or what is geometrodynamically referred to as the Riemann 4-dimensional tensor system. 

We are expressing in a non-relative manner the basic or fundamental properties and identity of the space-time matrix. When we refer to the gravitational field, we are referring to the entire gravitational matrix in which spime occurs, as well as to the relativistic gravitational effects experienced within this matrix, especially in relation to solid forms of matter.

Spime appears to be non-particularistic. It does not exist in the form of distinctive particles with isolatable properties.

Spime appears to be non-reflective. No known substance or means exists that allows us to deflect or otherwise  alter the directional propagation of gravitation.

On the other hand,  spime appears to be gravitationally absorptive in matter, and thus all forms of matter appear as a kind of gravitational black-body. Gaseous systems that are entrapped might be referred to as gravitationally gray-body, in the sense that gravitational forces are unevenly balanced and expressed in such systems. Like electromagnetic blackbodies, gravitational black-bodies produce concentrative pressure and heat.

The denser the matter, the more gravitationally absorptive of spime it will be, hence the greater the gravitational field will be.

Gravitational energy appears to propagate through spime in a manner that is independent of electromagnetic energy propagating through the same spime-matrix.

Spime appears to have negative or "dark" mass and energy, that is expressible as the energy of  inertia to acceleration or change in direction, or resistance to a state-change.

Spime appears to be almost perfectly transparent to light energy.

Spime interacts with matter in critical and interesting ways to produce gravitational differentials and gravitational flows.

Spime forms gravitational manifolds around different objects that are distinct and unique to the object, and which becomes a relative property  of that object within its gravitational frame of reference.

*****

By the principles of equivalence, if we know or can estimate the total energy of a system, then we can get at the gravitational potential of that system, which should be a proportion of the total mass represented by such a system:

If  e = mc² , then m = e/c²

The trouble with this formula is that the mass we can determine is relative to the gravitational system in which it occurs, as for instance the measurement of atomic weights on the surface of the earth. If we assume that the total energy of a system, minus its relative kinetic energy, is a constant or in a state of continuous equilibrium as per atomic size of the system, then we can substitute this equation for relative mass.

Gravitational energy appears to be equivalent to kinetic energy, and both share the inertia of mass as the fundamental measure of weight and the energy of acceleration of an object, or an objects achieved momentum.

If mass is relative to the gravitational frame of reference it is  measured  within, then we must suspect that energy available in any such system is variably dependent upon the relative gravitational field. If we want the equivalence of energy to matter, then we  must assume  that absolute mass is equivalent to the net atomic size of a system, which would be the total number of neutrons and protons contained in such a system. It would also be necessary to take into account the gravitational field of such a system, if this produces increased energy in such a system as a function of atomic and molecular densities.

In this case, the question to be asked is whether or not the change in mass of atomic nuclei in differential gravitational fields, does not result in the change in total energy available in such a system. In other words, the energy of any system would be directly dependent upon its gravitational surroundings. High gravity systems would produce increased amounts of energy per atomic unit of measure, and it would be assumed that more energy would be yielded per unit from a high gravity system compared to a low gravity system. This may be the basis for the periodic slowing of clocks in high energy fields, and the spatial dilation. Motion as a form of kinetic energy provides a clear counterforce for gravitational systems, and produces much the same effects.  Objects will fall to earth because, for their unit size, they will tend to move in the direction of highest energy within a gravitational field. The effect of gravitational increase in mass upon such objects is the same as if these objects were being heated by a high energy thermal body--instead of getting hotter, such objects become heavier. Increase in mass would result in their motional acceleration.

The effect of gravitational energy is the measure of mass per atomic unit, which is indirectly  a measure of the relative  energy available within such a system. This is precisely parallel to the effect of  thermodynamic energy as the measure of heat within a system. Just as heat transfers from high to low energy systems, to fill a vacuum, so too does  gravitational energy transfer from high to low energy  systems, until equilibrium between the two systems is achieved.

It is apparent then that energy does not exist in systems in an isolated or independent manner. Energy is a function of the complex relationship between an object and its  surroundings. These surroundings are constituted by a complex set of fields that control all periodic and dimensional properties. These fields are thermodynamic and gravitational. The thermodyanamic field effects the level of kinetic energy and electro-static potential in systems, and the gravitational field affects the level of inertial energy, or mass, and the motional potential of systems. The motional potential of a system can be defined as  its ability to be translated through four-dimensional constructs as a coherent entity--in other words its four dimensional coordinates can change in a coordinated manner, affecting the disposition and energy of such a system.

Gravitational energy in the universe is being continuously exchanged between mass objects, just as heat  energy is also being exchanged. Unlike thermodynamic energy which is radiative, it appears that gravitational energy is fundamentally attractive and concentrative in nature.

Gravitational energy is a function of the relative density  of atomic nuclei in four dimensions--the denser the distribution of nuclei, the greater the gravitational energy of the system. This is a complementary  relationship, as the density of the nuclei is directly  affected by the gravitational energy available to the system--gravitation tending to concentrate nuclei in thicker and thicker concentrations. Thus the total amount of gravitation, and the resulting concentration of densities, is a function of atomic size and distribution of a system--the larger and  denser a system, the higher the gravitational potential, and the greater the  packing of the system.

We may refer therefore to first order densities within gravitational systems, which represent the molecular densities of objects distributed in four dimensions, and second order densities, which are the results of gravitational pressures affecting such systems leading to greater concentration and increase of gravitation. Increase in density of systems is size dependent, and these increases are held in dynamic equilibrium  by electrostatic and strong forces that counteract the effects of gravitational concentration at basic levels.

We may distinguish between the gravitational energy available in such a system, and its  intrinsic thermodynamic energy. The equation of equivalence  above deals primarily with thermodynamic energy and fails to take into account the effect of gravitational energy upon such systems. In general, we may say that gravitational energy is extrinsic energy derivable from the surroundings of a system, while thermodynamic energy is intrinsic energy available from within the system itself. Available gravitational energy in a system increases logarithmically with increasing density and size of a system. This relationship is clearly non-linear.

*****

Humans are prone to ask ultimate kinds of questions. Where did it all come from? How did the universe form in the first place? We cannot ultimately answer these kinds of  questions in a sufficient and scientific manner. Whatever answers we may give to these questions, leads to newer questions about what came before and beyond our own answers. This kind of fundamental metalemma leads suggests strongly the notion that the universe may indeed be in some basic sense both infinite and eternal in ways we do not yet comprehend. And yet the comprehension of the concept of infinitudes poses its own kinds of metalemmas upon our understanding of reality, as our own existences are circumscribed in every way by natural limits and boundaries, beginnings and end states. Why should the whole universe, whatever this ultimately may be, be any different than all the entities that seem to compose it, entities that invariably have a beginning, a middle and an end?

Systems theory determines that we cannot propose models that lack substantive evidence or  explanatory weight in terms of observable empirical phenomena. In other words, we should not hypothesize an alternative pathway to the production of matter if a known and readily available pathway, via solar fusion, is known to exist and to be ubiquitous in the universe.

Systems theory also determines  that we seek explanation simultaneously  in two different directions. First we seek to understand the function of the components of any system, and to explain the origin of the system in terms of the origin of its components. Secondly, we seek to determine the super-systemic framework for the system, and to determine its origin in terms of the origin of this super-systemic framework.

Part of our metalemma in the conceptualization of systems science is the sense that all systems are part of yet  larger systems, and we know of no final upper limit of systems contained within systems from which to start as  a baseline. Alternatively, it seems that each  subsystem of any system composes its own system made up of yet smaller subsystems, and so on ad infinitum. We know as yet no non-arbitrary or self-consistent lower limit in the analysis of systems. Discovery of either an upper or lower limit to natural systems will automatically define a boundary about the physical system as a whole that will entail it is not infinite.

The conceptualization and possibility of infinite systems exists commonly in abstract systems, but it is uncertain if these same possibilities exist for natural systems as well. An infinite and endless universe is certainly a realistic possibility, but a big part of the problem is that we may ultimately never be able  to prove it in a scientifically satisfactory manner.

In this sense, the limitations we are confronting are not the extrinsic boundaries of the universe, but the limits of our own knowledge and capacity to either observe or determine in an objective manner such questions. The entire theory of spime and gravitational dynamics is based upon a premise that most energy dynamics of the universe are essentially beyond the possibility of our direct observation. These are beyond observability in a number of ways: we cannot observe the very smallest units that go into the composition of subatomic particles; we cannot observe directly the action and phenomenon of gravitation in otherwise "empty" space; we cannot observe the largest  and longest distance effects or consequences of gravitational unification and action across the entire universe. We are bound in the last sense to observe within a light sphere that is critically limited by the speed of light. We only hypothesize certain phenomena that are not observable because: 1. We can logically deduce from observable phenomena the consistency and simultaneity of the universe, as well as the effects of gravitation upon a number of levels; 2. The explanations we propose are logically non-contradictory to any known evidence, and serve to comprehensively unify an understanding of the universe from a theoretical point of view. We are left with the dilemma of proposing the existence of something basic in the universe that seems, by our own limited abilities to see, not to be there. We are proposing in a basic way that there is something in apparent nothingness in the universe, and, by logic, that something ultimately came from nothingness.

We are also left to defy for the sake of explaining gravitational phenomena certain basic principles of thermodynamics. It  is understandable that heat exchanges comprehend only a limited class of energy  exchange-conversion dynamics in the universe, and may be founded upon a larger and more basic class of gravitational energy  exchange dynamics that do not necessarily, and more importantly, violate in critical ways, basic laws of thermodynamics. The laws of thermodynamics are based upon the radiative properties of heat energy, and by extension, all electromagnetic radiation. These laws are insufficient to explaining the dynamics of attractive energy systems that involve a kind of anti-entropic work to maintain balance and order. Gravitation is an example of such a system that appears to work independently of thermodynamic principles within what can be called  a complementary state universe. This contradiction is resolvable if we realize that thermodynamics comprehending a special subclass of energy dynamics  possible in the universe is only a limited paradigm, thus proposing a more comprehensive paradigm of gravitational dynamics does not inherently contradict thermodynamic principles, though it results in orderly and patterned phenomena that cannot be explained within a thermodynamic model of the universe. Gravitational dynamics as a broader class of energy conversion and exchange dynamics are understandable within the following kind of paradigm:

1. There is a net balance of all energy transactions between positive and negative forms of energy such that positive and negative energies affecting any one system will always equal zero. If two or more systems exist within a shared gravitational frame of reference, then those multiple systems will eventually come into gravitational equilibrium with one another. Within any system of energy exchange, a sense of local gravitational equilibrium will be definable for that system as part of a universal gravitational field, which represents an infinite sized gravitational sink and source.

1a. Any two or more unequal sized  mass objects in gravitational relation, equilibrium  will always tend towards the larger object.

1b. A gravitational system in the long will tend to gain energy gravitationally.

1c. All objects seek dynamic gravitational equilibrium relative to their motion.

2. An object in a relative state of gravitational equilibrium, however dynamic, cannot spontaneously alter its state of equilibrium unless acted upon by some outside agency that perturbs the  balance established by the system.

2a. A system in gravitational equilibrium will maintain its motion in perpetuity unless disturbed.

2.b There occur spontaneous and intrinsic motions associated with systems and these motions can become increasingly dynamic with time.

3. It requires a finite amount of energy to alter the gravitational equilibrium of any object in any manner. Thermodynamics suggests that this transaction will never be perfectly efficient.

3.a The energy of inertia required to accelerate an object, to change its direction or to decelerate an object is always exactly equal to the negative gravitational energy associated with its disequilibriation.

3b. Increasing the mass or inertia of energy of an object increases its gravitational potential.

3c. Increasing the gravitational potential of an object increases its relative mass and inertia of energy.

4. Absolute zero represents the point of convergence with Gravitational Zero, or what can be referred to as Absolute Rest.

4.a. All objects are in continuous motion.

4.b.  Nothing is at Absolute Rest

In this model,  the equivalent of heat is what can be referred to as relative gravitational equilibrium, and just as temperature is the measure of heat in any system, mass is the relative measure of the gravitational potential of such a system. Any one or more systems will seek gravitational equilibrium with their surroundings. In heat exchange processes we distinguish between exothermic and endothermic exchange processes that refer to relations between a system and its surroundings. In gravitational exchange processes, what can be referred to as endo-gravitational processes are fundamentally different from what can be referred to as exo-gravitational processes. Endo-gravitational processes are by definition negative energy sources and sinks attached to the surroundings. Exo-gravitational processes are likewise the by products and results of gravitational exchange and conversion processes. Gravitational exchange processes always occur in one direction:

            endo-gravitational inputs  +  mass Þ  exo-gravitational outputs

Without a permanent mass object by which to define a surrounding gravitational manifold, there can be no permanent isotropic structures of the gravitational field.

All "empty" patterns of gravitational distribution are fundamentally fluid and dynamic.

We are presented with a paradox that within the framework of the atom, gravitation is the weakest force that is known to exist in the universe, but this force has a cumulative consequence upon the universe that is far, far greater than that of any other force known to exist.

Gravitation exists as a kind of balance system between positive and negative energies. To understand gravitational systems as always tending to be in balance, it is important to understand that dynamic equilibrium always seeks a state of relative rest that is in lieu of a more stable state.

Gravitational equilibrium that is dynamic presents a kind of centrifugal restoring force to perturbations of steady-state systems, and this analogy is more than fitting because I believe the rates of spime induction intrinsic to subatomic particles are determined by the rates of spin of the units.

Speculations on Space-time

The Problem of Unification of Physical Systems Theory

A unified theoretical or general model of physical systems that is truly comprehensive will serve to unite the very large and the very small, and to bring all the different mechanical explanations of behavior of energy and physical processes and entities under a single mathematical umbrella.

The basic presupposition of any unified paradigm of physical reality must be that there exists a quintessential "force" or energy from which all other known forms of energy are derivable.

The key observations I make in this regard follows deductively from the following line of reasoning:

1. Gravitational dynamics appears to defy the laws of thermodynamics at every instance of its demonstration. Large astronomical bodies that are made spherical by their great mass appear to generate far greater amounts of gravitational energy than is accountable by their mass and matter alone. They act more like gravitational lens that collect energy and release it back out.

2. The total amount of gravitational and thermodynamic energy released by stellar systems during the course of their life-cycles exceeds by many many times the total net amount of energy contained in their mass, even if we take into account the tremendous energy released from fusion and fission reactions according to the famous equation E=MC²

3. As a conclusion of these basic observations, it is likely that space-time is being drawn into gravitational bodies at enormous rates, and this space-time is being swallowed up by gravitational bodies. Energy from these fundamental interactions is then released in a continuous if periodic manner back out of the system, primarily as gravitational radiation, and secondarily as thermal, light or nuclear radiation, depending on the mass of the gravitating body.

4. Space-time flows in the direction reverse to that of the propagation of gravitational radiation. Strong surges of gravitational radiation can cause ripples and waves of space-time flow that affect the dynamics of objects caught within this flow.

5. If not otherwise directed by some counter-force, an object will spontaneously flow in the direction of the dominant flow of space-time. In fields of differential gravitational radiation, this flow will accelerate, and the rate of movement of the object embedded will also accelerate.

6. An object in otherwise empty space-time will, if acted upon by some counter-force, demonstrate a degree of acceleration in the direction precisely opposite of the inertial resistance of the object, which is a function of that objects mass and momentum. The inertial forces that embed an object within its space-time manifold is equivalent to the gravitational forces that are a consequence of an object's inherent mass.

Gravitation is to be considered a complex and multi-faceted phenomena. Gravitational radiation should be construed as something different from the space-time flow of gravity, and it should be distinguished from the ripple or wave effect that gravitational surges from sudden changes in mass (or alternately, violent collisions resulting in sudden changes of direction, speed) induce in the flow of space-time. At the same time we should distinguish between the local or fundamental field of gravitation at a very fine level of measurement, from the kind of grand gravitational field that broadcasts itself across the expanses of the universe. I define the former as a function of the cohesive properties of the constituent components of the space-time field on a fundamental level, properties that translate into the nuclei of matter and that appeared to be shared in gravitationally unified collections of nuclei. This must be distinguished from the larger field effects we associate with a relativistic view of space time, and that we understand in terms of the presence and propagation of field lines and the interaction of light or the motion of objects within such fields.

It can be concluded that when we observe an apple fall from a tree, or follow the path of the moon around the earth's night-sky, we are observing a much more complicated set of processes than that of a single "string" of connecting energy between an object and its center of gravity. In fact, it can be said that we are observing directly the consequences of patterns and processes of an entire strata of physical reality that transpires at a level far smaller than that of an atom or even of its primary constituents. In other words we are observing by means of such phenomena an entire level of patterning and process of physical reality that has its own emergent properties and occurs at a much finer scale of measurement than is needed even for the observation of atoms and subatomic entities.

All known forms of energy are observable as a direct consequence of the interactions that occur within an atom. This forms a foundation for the unification of physics if we observe in the standard model of the atom a complex system of energy events and transactions that occur, in however a dynamic and relativistic a manner, so as to yield in predictable ways definite rates and amounts of various kinds of energy.

So-called subatomic "particles" are themselves composite event-entities, as stable as they are short or long lived. All known subatomic particles are considered to be state-dependent variables that for the most part are transient as a consequence of the dynamic state trajectories they maintain.

All known light is radiated as a consequence of the interaction of the electron about its nucleus. Spontaneous emissions of light may also occur, as a function of the flow and folding of space-time, in a manner similar to Cerenkov radiation.

All known gravitational energy is released as a consequence of the interaction of the nucleons within the nuclei, and, apparently, between different nuclei. Spontaneous emission of gravitational energy may occur also in a similar manner as the proposed spontaneous emission of light.

It is the interactions of the electrons and nucleons within their respective space-time fields, that produced light and gravitational radiation, respectively. Light is produced by the local perturbations of the motion of the electron in its orbital shell. Excitation of the electron will produce a pulsation of light. Similarly, we can conclude that nucleons exist in their own orbital shells within the vicinity of the nucleus, and are not solid or stationary entities, but a complex constellation of quantum entities that disturb the space-time manifold, releasing gravitational radiation.

We cannot clearly distinguish from the objective or active part of light or gravitational energy, as a quantum "particle" like a photon or graviton, from its local effects on the space-time manifold as it propagates through empty space-time. We may in other words look at the propagation of a photon as the vibration of a kind of space-time string that propagates in a single direction from its source.

The total gravitational output and effect of an object of matter in space-time is directly proportional to the total atomic mass of the combined matter of the object, divided by its total size. The evenness and distribution of the gravitational field about an object is a direct function of the differential distribution of mass in the object and its shape.

We cannot see the phenomenon of gravitation as a unitary or single set of processes, but rather we must see its various properties and effects that are observable as the consequence of a complex system of interaction between the space-time construct, presumably a form of physical presence, or "physical state of reality" with its own sets of properties, and the things contained within this construct, like matter and energy.

*****

The constant of the speed of light does not preclude or obviate the factual and logical requirement of an instantaneous or simultaneous state universe. In other words, we assume in our models, that the universe occurs everywhere at the same concurrent instant.

The universe may indeed be expanding, though this expansion may have nothing to do with the red-shift effect observed in very old light. We may explain the expansion of the universe as an outcome of its increasing turbulence that arises from the stockpiling and aggregation of greater and greater amounts of thermodynamic energy and matter in more stable forms. As the universe continues to create itself, it requires more room for expansion, and hence its space-time manifold continues expanding.

What follows from this is a conception of a primordial state of the universe that was very calm, empty and "smooth" in its flow and topography of space-time. Such an empty-state universe may actually have been a very small affair. Neither time nor space as basic measures and fundamental constraints on the structure of physical reality would have mattered in such a universe.

Physical Systems

by Hugh M. Lewis